Bibliography

1.     "Web Design, Wordpress Themes, Graphic Design Photoshop,3d Max and Design Resources." Naldz Graphics RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://naldzgraphics.net/photography/sports-photography-examples/>.

2.     "Monthly Archives: September 2011." Irati Anda. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://iratianda.com/date/2011/09>.

3.     ^ Cox, Steven M. and Kris Fulsaas, ed.86-828-9, ed. (2003-09) (7 ed.). Seattle.

4.     "Equipment." Equipment. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~sedwards/climbing/equipment.html>.

5.     "Petzl GriGri Belay Device." About.com Climbing. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://climbing.about.com/od/climbinggear/gr/PetzlGriGri.htm>.

6.     "Climbing Glove and Belay Glove Buying Advice." OutdoorGearLab.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.outdoorgearlab.com/Climbing-Glove-Reviews/buying-advice>.

7.     "Harnesses & Holds - Ability to Secure and Scale or Descend." Equipment Used for Rock Climbing. N.p., 2004. Web. 6 Jan. 2013. <http://www.equipmentforrockclimbing.com/harnesses.html>.

8.     "Rock Climbing Quickdraws." Rock Climbing Quickdraws. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.abc-of-rockclimbing.com/info/rock-climbing-quickdraws.asp>.

9.     Cox, Steven M. and Kris Fulsaas, ed., ed. (2003-09). Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills (7 ed.). Seattle: The Mountaineers. ISBN 0-89886-828-9.

10. "The History of Climbing Shoes." LIVESTRONG.COM. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.livestrong.com/article/355975-the-history-of-climbing-shoes/>.

11. "Rock Climbing Gloves Shop." Rock Climbing Gloves Shop. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.abc-of-rockclimbing.com/climbing-gloves.asp>.

12. "Types of Rock Climbing Holds." LIVESTRONG.COM. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.livestrong.com/article/339871-types-of-rock-climbing-holds/>.

13. SRekha. "How to Make Rock Climbing Holds." Helium. Helium, 23 Mar. 2010. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.helium.com/items/1781736-rock-climbing-holds>.

14. "Choosing a Hangboard for Rock Climbing Training." Squidoo. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.squidoo.com/choosing-a-hangboard-for-rock-climbing-training>.

15. "Climbing Holds." Climbing Holds. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.indoorclimbing.com/climbing_holds.html>.

16. "The Exercise Benefits of Rock Climbing." / Fitness / Exercises. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.fitday.com/fitness-articles/fitness/exercises/the-exercise-benefits-of-rock-climbing.html>.

17. "The Many Health Benefits of Rock Climbing." Yahoo! Sports. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://sports.yahoo.com/top/news?slug=ycn-8762203>.

18. "Biggest Benefits of Rock Climbing." Yahoo! Sports. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://sports.yahoo.com/top/news?slug=ycn-8734085>.

19. "Health Benefits of Rock Climbing." Hive Health Media. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Jan. 2013. <http://www.hivehealthmedia.com/health-benefits-rock-climbing/>.

20. "Himalman’s Weblog." Himalmans Weblog. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://himalman.wordpress.com/2009/06/24/beginner’s-guide-to-climbing-indoor-rock-climbing/>.

21. "Rock Climbing Equipment." Emergency Rescue Height Safety Equipment. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.ferno.com.au/Products/RockClimbing/tabid/70/Default.aspx>.

22. "The YMCA of Beaufort SC. Welcome to the Y!" YMCA Beaufort RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.ymcabeaufortcounty.com/aquatics/rock-wall>.

23. "Edelrid - Eagle 9.8mm Dynamic Rope (60m) - Rock Climbing Equipment Kellys Basecamp." Kellys Basecamp. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.kellysbasecamp.com.au/p/4476270/edelrid---eagle-98mm-dynamic-rope-60m.html>.

24. "Tubular Webbing Polyamid 16MM." : Rock Climbing Gear : Rockclimbing.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.rockclimbing.com/gear/Add-On_Climbing_Gear/Webbing/Tubular_Webbing_Polyamid_16MM_13263.html>.

25. "Kingsnaps Aluminum Carabiners Climbing Gear Safety Equipment Safety Hooks Rigging Saddle Marine Hardware Pulleys Bolts Clips Quicklink Shackles Swivels Thimbles Turnbuckles Harness Manufacturer Taiwan." Kingsnaps Aluminum Carabiners Climbing Gear Safety Equipment Safety Hooks Rigging Saddle Marine Hardware Pulleys Bolts Clips Quicklink Shackles Swivels Thimbles Turnbuckles Harness Manufacturer Taiwan. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.kingsnaps.net/index_down.php>.

26. "Getting Started." Climb On. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://sajenhernandez.com/rockclimbing/gettingstarted.html>.

27. "Pro-Sports." ProSports RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://figur8.net/sports/2007/05/24/beginers-rock-climbing-tying-in-to-a-climbing-harness/>.

28. "Madtalkz – Equipment » Madmonkeyz Indoor Bouldering Gym (Malaysia) - Bouldering, Climbing, Climbing Equipment, Rock Climbing In Malaysia, Climb Malaysia, Malaysia Climb, Outdoor Climb, Climbing in Malaysia." Madmonkeyz Indoor Bouldering Gym Malaysia. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.madmonkeyz.my/blog/madtalkz-–-equipment-2>.

29. "Stock Photo - Hiker Gear/rock Climbing ( Carabiner and Descender )." 123RF Stock Photos. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.123rf.com/photo_8838987_hiker-gear-rock-climbing--carabiner-and-descender.html>.

30. "Peter Thomas – Award-winning Business Intelligence and Cultural Transformation Expert." Peter Thomas Awardwinning Business Intelligence and Cultural Transformation Expert. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://peterjamesthomas.com/2010/05/04/incremental-progress-and-rock-climbing/>.

31. "Wild Country Helium Friends Review." Rock Climbing. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.cruxn.com/wild-country-helium-friends-review/>.

32. "Guide to Choosing Climbing Shoes." Evening Sends Climbing People Travel Words A Website by Andrew Bisharat. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://eveningsends.com/2011/09/guide-to-choosing-climbing-shoes/>.

33. "Three Ball Climbing." Frog Kids Climbing Holds. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.threeballclimbing.com/rock/frogs-10-kids-climbing-holds.htm>.

34. "Rock Climbing." Rock Climbing. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://activekidzlongisland.com/rock_climbing.php>.

35. "Posts Tagged ‘Dr Perviz Asaria’." Hitting the Headlines RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www2.imperial.ac.uk/blog/hittingtheheadlines/tag/dr-perviz-asaria/>.

36. "Rock Climbing: 1 of 8 Exercises That Burn the Most Calories | Health Tips, Fitness Advice, Beauty Reviews & Lifestyle Blog - WithLoveFay.com." Health Tips Fitness Advice Beauty Reviews Lifestyle Blog WithLoveFaycom. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www.withlovefay.com/2011/09/rock-climbing-1-of-8-exercises-that-burn-the-most-calories/>.

37. "March 2012 Archives." Psy 1001 Section 04-05 Spring 2012:. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://blog.lib.umn.edu/huber195/psy1001spring12/2012/03/>.

Physical health benefit of rock climbing

Cardiovascular System [35]

Improved cardiovascular system ^{[16] [17] [19]}

Cardiovascular system controls the flowing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood around our bodies together with nutrients like glucose, plasma protein, interstitial fluid and white blood cells through arteries and veins from heart to the rest of the body parts including our brain. Without a healthy cardiovascular system, we will experience many diseases like shortness of breath, breath difficulties and heart attacks. Therefore, it is necessary to improve our cardiovascular system to ensure a good body health. Activities such as walking, swimming and rock climbing are proven to have good impact on our cardiovascular system and the time we spend on these exercises will have benefits to our health too.

Weight loss/ Maintaining ideal weight ^{[16] [17] [19]}

In order to lose 1 pound of fats per week, 500 calories have to be burned each day. Rock climbing offers effective and healthy path to lose weight because at moderate intensity, 400 calories can be burned in one hour.

Increased muscle tone ^{[16] [17]}

Rock climbing exercise targets on many parts of muscles of our body such as finger, back, neck, chest, hands and legs. By carrying out this activity, we are able to build our muscles strength and result in higher metabolism rate.

Increased flexibility ^{[17] [19]}

Muscles have to be stretched when we want to reach another hold on the climbing wall. Therefore, rock climbing has effect on our muscles flexibility too. Having good flexibility is necessary because it can prevent us from getting injured and improve our joints movement as we age.

Balancing and coordination

To make us all the way up to the top of the wall and down to the ground, good coordination and balancing are required to prevent from falling.

Mental concentration ^[18]

Without full concentration while climbing can result in falling or fatal injuries. Therefore, climbers are being trained to stay focus on a specific task for a long time to minimize any possible of health-threatening injuries.

Interaction with people and trust is built. [36]

Interaction with people and trust ^[18]

Good interaction and trust must be built between the belayer and the climber.

Self-confidence

When a climber starts to climb up the wall, he must believe that he has the ability to climb all the way up and down without falling. If he is panicked, he might accidentally release the climbing rope and cause serious injuries.

Motivation and Mental Strength [37]

Motivation

There are different levels of difficulties available in rock climbing activity. Therefore, after completing one route, the climber would feel motivated and have the urge to complete the more difficult one until they can master every single hold.

Problem solving ability ^[19]

There are no instructions on which hold to grab first and next on the rock-climbing wall. Climbers are being trained to solve problem immediately on which path they should go in order to complete the route without falling.

Boosting our mood ^[19]

The meditative state can boost our mood by releasing serotonin (hormone). 

Boost your mood and team work. [36]

Climbing holds [33]

Climbing holds ^[12]

Climbing holds are the shaped grips that are attached to the climbing wall, which climbers would grab or step on it to make their way up or down. Climbing holds are being arranged in routes by route setters, which give different levels of difficulties for the climbers due to the sizes, shapes and their positions. They are either being bolted to the wall using hex-head bolts or t-nuts or bring screwed on it using few small screws. In some cases, concrete anchors are needed.

They are few types of materials for manufacturing these holds: ^{[13] [14]}

1.     Rocks, which are the natural raw material. They have good texture but heavy, hard to manufacture and impractical due to limited resources. 

2.     Wood, which is smooth and nice to grab, is difficult to wash and maintained because splintering is possible.

3.     Resin mixture, which provides pleasant hold and texture, will be brittle with ages and eventually, cracked. Resin holds are not flexible and will crack if being tightened onto the wall, which is not flat. It is heavy and the shape of its hold can be sharp and dangerous.

4.     Urethane mixture, which is the currently most commercial holds due to its lightweight property, flexibility and less prone to chipping and cracks when compared to resin. Mixture of urethane varies with textures and strengths; soft urethane will be split apart when being tightened; whereas if too hard, will be brittle. It is not a good material for outdoor usage. However, up until today, urethane is still the best material for manufacturing climbing holds.

Types of holds:

Footholds and Handholds [34]

Footholds: ^[12]

Footholds refer to any holds that are designed to be stepped on. They vary in shapes and are quite small in size, which only provide just enough space for the toe of the climber’s feet to step on.

Handholds: ^{[12] [14] [15]}

Handholds refer to any holds that are being grabbed using hands, though many may be stepped on. They are being categorized according to their shapes:

a.     Positivity:

Positivity indicates how easy is the hold to be grabbed on due to its outward-shaped design and larger lip. They are being screwed onto the wall at less than 90 degrees.

b.     Jugs

Jugs refer to large holds, which provide enough space for both hands to be fit onto the holds. They are very positive and are being used as the first step for beginners or as beginner routes.

c.      Mini-Jugs

Mini-jugs are holds that are smaller than jugs but still positive. They can be held using one hand only.

d.     Slopers

Slopers refer to any holds that are greater than 90 degrees to the climbing wall and are less positive. They slope down from the climbing wall, which require maximum friction force from the climbers in order to hold firmly onto the holds. These slopes are more difficult and only appeared in advance routes.

e.     Pockets

Pockets are the holds that have small opening, allowing only one to three fingers to grab on them. Monos (Can only be grabbed by 1 finger) are extremely challenging, which can injure the climber’s tendons.

f.      Pinches:

Pinches refer to holds that have two opposing surfaces, which force climbers to pinch on it, usually with the entire hand. They are being reserved for more challenging routes.

g.     Cripms:

Crips are small but slightly positive and are deep enough to allow the tips of the fingers to fit into them. Maximum friction force is needed.

h.     Volumes:

They are very large holds, which have different holds attached on them.

i.       Undercling

Undercling refers to a hold that faces down the surface of the rock and is normally being found in caves of steep climbs. Right techniques and body position is important in gaining maximum upward force with minimal amount of energy.

j.       Sidepull

Sidepulls are similar to crimp but the only different is that climbers are to pull sideways instead of downwards. They produce a lot of upward force with minimal effort too. 

[21]

Safety Equipment

It is not advisable to carry out rock-climbing activity without any safety equipment to protect climbers against consequences of falling. ^[3]

Rock climbing rope and carabiners [22]

Rope ^{[2] [4]}

Climbing ropes are the first most important safety equipment for rock climbing, which consist of a core twisted fibers and an outer sheath of woven fibers. The twisted fibers are strong enough to provide around 80% of the tensile strength; whereas the woven fibers are the tough layer, which provides protections to the core and also pleasant for handling.

Edelrid- Eagle 9.8mm Dynamic Rope (60m) [23]

There are two types of ropes:

Dynamic ropes are made to absorb the energy generated when the climber falls and is often being used as the belaying ropes because this rope can be stretched and this reduces the maximum force that could be experienced by the climber, the equipment and belayer during a fall. ^{[2] [4]}

Low elongation ropes do not stretch as much as the dynamic ropes do and are often known as static ropes.  Therefore, they are being used for abseiling and acted as the fixed ropes for the climbers to climb. ^{[2] [4]}

Tubular Webbing Polyamid 16MM [25]

Webbing ^[4]

Webbing is made of nylon, strong polyester or it can be made of Spectra, which is normally being referred as Dyneema; sometimes, both. The tubular webbing is strong enough to withstand 9000N of force. Dyneema can go up to 27kN of force. The webbing can be tied together to form a sling or runner, where a carabiner is clip on the end of it.

Aluminum carabiners [25]

Carabiners ^[4]

Carabiners are being used as connectors, which are made of either steel or aluminum and are consisted of metal loops with gates (spring-loaded opening). Even though steel carabiners are heaver, they are more preferable due to its strong strength. The shapes and sizes of carabiners vary with purposes and they exist in two forms; locking or non-locking. Locking carabiners are safer and are used for major connections like belaying device because locks are being given to prevent the gate from opening, which may lead to injuries. Bent-gate carabiners are less safer because the gate can be easily opened by itself. Strong carabiners can hold forces up to 20kN. There are different types of carabiners:

1.     Tube-gate carabiner: It is the most commonly used amongst all carabiners because many applications can be performed. However, it is heavier is mass.  ^[8]

2.     Wire-gate carabiner: It is lighter but easily break; works similarly to tube-gate carabiner. ^[8]

3.     Straight-gate carabiner: It works for almost every application and is known as the standard gate for carabiner but it is usually attached to some sorts of protections. ^[8]

4.     Bent-gate carabiner: This is used to clip the climbing rope too but quickdraws offer better performance. ^[8]

Quickdraws [26]

Quickdraws (Runners) ^[8]

Climbing ropes can be pulled towards the center with least friction force by using quickdraws. Quickdraws are consisted of two carabiners; a straight-gate and bent-gate, which are held together by a sewn loop of webbing (Dyneema or nylon). The length of the sling may be varied. The climbing rope is always attached to the bent-gate carabiners because it can reduce the resistance force due to contacting with any dents.

Harness [26]

Harness and holds ^[7]

Harness is used to connect the climbing rope to the climber. It secures our bodies when we climb and is worn around the pelvis and hips. Therefore, it has a figure “8” knot, which some allow the climbers to adjust the leg loop size and have specialized lining around the waist and leg loops that keeps the skin dry. Some may even offer a foam padding that is designed to provide support and comfort to the climbers. About 20% of out body weight is rest on the belt; whereas the rest is rest on the legs. Proper adjustment is required to prevent from turning upside down and fall. There is a kind of harness, which provide full protection for the entire body for children or climbers who will experience a possibility of being inverted or carrying heavy bags. Chest harnesses are another type of harness, which must be used together with sit harnesses, to provide the same effect as full body harnesses. However, according to UIAA, this harness is more dangerous to be used because it exerts pressure on the neck.

Holds are something that is designed to ease climbers in pulling themselves up or down using both hands and foot.

How to fit your harness [27]

Belay devices ^[4]

Belay devices are designed as a brake to control the speed of the rope when belaying so that the rope can be locked off with least force to stop a climber from falling in high speed. Some belay devices can be used as descenders for abseiling or rappelling. There are two types of belay devices:

Belay Device [28]

Passive belay devices require belayer’s hand and a carabiner to lock off the rope like Stichy plates and ATC; whereas the active belay devices such as GriGri ^[5] do not need any tool to help in locking off the rope due to its built-in mechanism. GriGri ^[5] is able to sense the falling of climber and will automatically lock off the rope to keep the falling climber safe.

Descender and a carabiner [29]

Descenders ^[7]

Descenders are used to descent steep rock or in extreme area, which is difficult to start of the climb like sea cliff. A rope will be used to go through an anchor at the top then it is attached to a device, which can provide friction force, and a screwgate on the harness. A knot can be placed onto the dead rope, which is the rope that the climber is controlling, and clip it in his/her abseil loop below the extender with another screwgate. This knot can be used to stop the abseil if the controlling hand is released by accident.

Ascenders and pulleys ^[7]

They are designed to keep the ascension parallel to the way of the pulling force and are used on single climbing rope. It is attached to the harness through carabiner and eased the climbers in gripping the rope and slinging upward easily.

Protection equipment

Nuts and Hexes [30]

Nuts ^[9]

Nuts are a small block of metal that is attached to a cord or wire, which is used as a protection by wedging it into the cracks in the rock. The smallest nuts are known as micronuts and are made of brass. Micronuts aid climbers in climbing and protect him/her against fall by arresting a climber’s fall.

Hexes ^[9]

Hexes are designed to protect climbers from the injuries when falling, which work similarly as nuts and are consist of a hollow irregular hexagonal prism with narrow ends and cord. Their thicknesses vary from 10mm to 100mm wide and the sides can be either straight or curved.

SLCD [31]

Spring-loaded camming devices (SLCD) ^{[4] [6]}

SLCD consists of a stem and 4 spiral-shaped spring-loaded cams. By pulling the cams, they are being brought closer and is inserted into the cracks in the rock. Then by releasing the trigger, the cams will expand and grip the surface of the rock firmly.

Specialized Clothing

Helmets ^[7] are made up of either polycarbonate or high impact plastic and foam lining for inner side to provide extra comfort to the climbers. Helmets are used to protect the climber’s skull against falling rocks that can cause fatal injuries. Therefore, helmets should be worn properly over the head and lower to protect the forehead. The chinstrap should be adjusted to fit the size of your head and its buckle should sit firmly at the throat. Make sure that the helmet is not too loose or too tight.

Climbing shoes [32]

Climbing shoes ^[10]

Rock climbing shoes are specialized shoes with hardened rubber layers, which are only few mm thick that provide climbers better grip on the climbing wall due to friction force.

Belay gloves ^[11]

Belay gloves are necessary for belayer who belays on long climbs because these gloves have heat resistant padding, which prevent the rope from burning when lowering the climbers or release of rope by accident. They are usually being made of leather.

Chalk ^[7]

Moist hands can be a major problem when climbing, which prevent climbers from gripping firmly onto the rock or rope. Therefore, chalk is necessary to be applied on both hands. Normally a chalk bag will be taken together with the climbers.